Dr Andrew Jones

Fluralaner is a novel insecticide targeting the ionotropic GABA receptor (GABAR) subunit, RDL. A recent study revealed that N316L, a substitution of asparagine (N) with leucine (L), in the second transmembrane (M2) -spanning region reduced the antagonist action of fluralaner on housefly Musca domestica RDL (MdRDL) in vitro. To verify the impact of N316L in vivo, the corresponding mutation (N318L) in the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster RDL (DmRDL) was constructed using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. The homozygous DmRDLN318L mutants showed 9.87-fold resistance to fluralaner compared with w1118, whilst still being highly sensitive to broflanilide and fipronil, which is consistent with those findings observed in the electrophysiology assays of homomeric DmRDLWT or DmRDLN318L channel. Moreover, N318L led to malformed ovaries, stunted eggs and sterility in homozygous females. These results highlighted the N318 as a molecular site for fluralaner in vivo and in vitro and might elucidate the resistance mechanisms of insect against fluralaner.

(1) Background: In Cambodia, Aedes albopictus is an important vector of Dengue virus. Vector control using insecticides is a major strategy implemented in managing mosquito-borne diseases. Resistance, however, threatens to undermine the use of insecticides. In this study, we present the levels of insecticide resistance of Ae. albopictus in Cambodia and the mechanisms involved. (2) Methods: Two Ae. albopictus populations were collected from the capital Phnom Penh city and from rural Pailin province. Adults were tested with diagnostic doses of malathion (0.8%), deltamethrin (0.03%), permethrin (0.25%) and DDT (4%) using WHO tube assays. Synergist assays using piperonyl butoxide (PBO) were implemented before the pyrethroid assays to detect the potential involvement of metabolic resistance mechanisms. Adult female mosquitoes collected from Phnom Penh and Pailin were tested for voltage gated sodium channel (VGSC) kdr (knockdown resistance) mutations commonly found in Aedes sp. resistant populations throughout Asia (S989P, V1016G and F1534C) as well as for other mutations (V410L, L982W, A1007G, I1011M, T1520I and, D1763Y). (3) Results: The two populations showed resistance against all the insecticides tested (vgsc gene showed a lack of kdr mutations known to be associated with pyrethroid resistance. However, four novel non-synonymous mutations (L412P/S, C983S, Q1554STOP and R1718L) and 29 synonymous mutations were detected. It remains to be determined whether these mutations contribute towards pyrethroid resistance. (4) Conclusions: Pyrethroid resistance is occurring in two Ae. albopictus populations originating from urban and rural areas of Cambodia. The resistance is likely due to metabolic resistance specifically involving P450s monooxygenases. The levels of resistance against different insecticide classes are a cause for concern in Cambodia. Alternative tools and insecticides for controlling dengue vectors should be used to minimize disease prevalence in the country.

The intensive management of cropland refers to a reduction in habitat complexity (i.e., shade tree cover, tree species richness, crop species richness) to gain more profits. This usually entails a decrease in biodiversity, but agroforestry systems have been shown to provide a solution to the need for profits while maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem services. Invertebrates are important bioindicators since they are not just affected by a decrease in habitat complexity; they are also key for the maintenance of ecosystems given their ecological roles. We aimed to understand how agricultural intensification impacted invertebrate abundance and richness in an agroforestry system in Bali, Indonesia. We set up 53 × 25 m2 plots and collected data via pitfall and pan traps. We linked those data to vegetation data (canopy cover, tree species richness, crop species richness), habitat type (rustic vs. polyculture), and productivity. Overall, we found that the abundance and richness of invertebrate taxa were positively influenced by increasing canopy cover and crop and tree species richness. This supports the habitat heterogeneity hypothesis, which indicates that increased habitat complexity promotes higher invertebrate species richness and abundance. The abundance and richness of certain invertebrate taxa, including agents of biocontrol, were shown to increase in plots with higher yields, thus solidifying the important role of invertebrate communities in the provision of ecosystem services. Harvesting crops from complex agroforestry systems ensures a sustainable income for local communities as well as habitats for invertebrates.

Meta-diamides (e.g. broflanilide) and isoxazolines (e.g. fluralaner) are novel insecticides that target the resistant to dieldrin (RDL) subunit of insect γ-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABARs). In this study, we used in silico analysis to identify residues that are critical for the interaction between RDL and these insecticides. Substitution of glycine at the third position (G3’) in the third transmembrane domain (TMD3) with methionine (G3’M TMD3), which is present in vertebrate GABARs, had the strongest effect on fluralaner binding. This was confirmed by expression of RDL from the rice stem borer, Chilo suppressalis, (CsRDL) in oocytes of the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, where the G3’MTMD3 mutation almost abolished the antagonistic action of fluralaner. Subsequently, G3’MTMD3 was introduced into the Rdl gene of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Larvae of heterozygous lines bearing G3’MTMD3 did not show significant resistance to avermectin, fipronil, broflanilide, and fluralaner. However, larvae homozygous for G3’MTMD3 were highly resistant to broflanilide and fluralaner whilst still being sensitive to fipronil and avermectin. Also, homozygous lines showed severely impaired locomotivity and did not survive to the pupal stage, indicating a significant fitness cost associated with the G3’MTMD3. Moreover, the M3’GTMD3 in the mouse Mus musculus α1β2 GABAR increased sensitivity to fluralaner. Taken together, these results provide convincing in vitro and in vivo evidence for both broflanilide and fluralaner acting on the same amino acid site, as well as insights into potential mechanisms leading to target-site resistance to these insecticides. In addition, our findings could guide further modification of isoxazolines to achieve higher selectivity for the control of insect pests with minimal effects on mammals.

Broflanilide, a novel meta-diamide insecticide, has been registered worldwide to control agricultural pests, and cause negative influence to insect under not only lethal but also sublethal level in the field. Fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda is a worldwide distributed insect frequently controlled by using insecticides, and the potential regulating mechanism of broflanilide on this key insect prompt careful characterization. In the present study, we exposed FAW larvae to sublethal dose (LD5), low lethal doses (LD10 and LD30) and median lethal dose (LD50) of broflanilide and measured various subsequent physiological sublethal effects. FAW larvae body length became shorter (LD5-LD50), the larvae and pupae duration were increased by 0.96-4.63 days (LD5-LD50), and the juvenile hormone (JH) titer significantly increased up to 134.46% (LD10-LD30). Meanwhile, the JH acid methyltransferase gene (JHAMT) and farnesyl diphosphate synthase 1 (FPPS1), which are critical enzymes of JH biosynthesis, increased by 2.07- and 2.18- fold in LD10 broflanilide-treated group, and by 2.22- and 1.78- fold in LD30 broflanilide-treated group in 3rd day larvae of FAW, respectively. In the 12-hour-old adults, SfrFPPS1 increased to 1.92-fold in LD30 broflanilide-treated group. Broflanilide induced multiple physiological sublethal effects on the biosynthesis of JH by regulating the expression of SfrFPPS and SfrJHAMT genes in FAW and likely in other insects (both pests and non-target organisms). Therefore, its potential for Integrated Pest Management should be further assessed.

In Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR), Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus 1762) and Ae. albopictus (Skuse 1894) mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are vectors of arboviral diseases such as dengue. As the treatment for these diseases are limited, control of the vectors with the use of pyrethroid insecticides is still essential. However, mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene (vgsc) giving rise to pyrethroid resistance is threatening vector control programs. Here, we analyzed both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes collected in different districts of Laos (Kaysone Phomvihane, Vangvieng, Saysettha and Xaythany) for vgsc mutations commonly found throughout Asia (S989P, V1016G and F1534C). Sequences of the vgsc gene showed that the F1534C mutation was prevalent in both Aedes species. S989P and V1016G mutations were detected in Ae. aegypti from each site and were always found together. In addition, the mutation T1520I was seen in Ae. albopictus mosquitoes from Saysettha district as well as in all Ae. aegypti samples. Thus, mutations in the vgsc gene of Ae. aegypti are prevalent in the four districts studied indicating growing insecticide resistance throughout Laos. Constant monitoring programmes and alternative strategies for controlling Aedes should be utilized in order to prolong the effectiveness of pyrethroids thereby maximizing vector control.

Insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are molecular targets of highly effective insecticides such as neonicotinoids. Functional expression of these receptors provides useful insights into their functional and pharmacological properties. Here, we report that the a5 nAChR subunit of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, functionally expresses in Xenopus laevis oocytes, which is the first time a homomeric insect nAChR has been robustly expressed in a heterologous system without the need for chaperone proteins. Using two-electrode voltage-clamp electrophysiology we show that the a5 receptor has low sensitivity to acetylcholine with an EC50 of 2.37 mM. However, serotonin acts as an agonist with a considerably lower EC50 at 119 microM that is also more efficacious than acetylcholine in activating the receptor. Molecular modelling indicates that residues in the complementary binding site may be involved in the selectivity towards serotonin. This is the first report of a ligand-gated ion channel activated by serotonin from an insect and phylogenetic analysis shows that the a5 subunit of A. mellifera and other non-Dipteran insects, including pest species, belong to a distinct subgroup of subunits, which may represent targets for the development of novel classes of insecticides.

Insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) are molecular targets of highly effective insecticides. The use of chaperone proteins has been key to successful functional expression of these receptors in heterologous systems, permitting functional and pharmacological studies of insect nAChRs with particular subunit composition. Here, we report the first use of the chaperone protein, NACHO, to enable functional expression of an insect nAChR, the a6 subunit from Apis mellifera, in Xenopus laevis oocytes. This is also the first report of functional expression of a homomeric insect a6 nAChR. Using two-electrode voltage-clamp electrophysiology we show that the acetylcholine EC50 of the a6 receptor is 0.88 microM and that acetylcholine responses are antagonized by a-bungarotoxin. Spinosad showed agonist actions and kept the ion channel open when co-applied with acetylcholine, reinforcing the a6 nAChR subunit as a key molecular target for the spinosyn class of insecticide. The use of NACHO may provide a basis for future expression studies of insect a6 nAChRs, potentially providing a tool for the discovery of novel insecticides.

Broflanilide is a novel insecticide with a unique mode of action on the insect GABA receptor and is registered worldwide for the control of agricultural pests. It shows high efficacy in controlling the fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda, which is a destructive pest to various crops. FAW were exposed to sublethal concentrations of broflanilide to determine its impact on insect development. Sublethal doses (LD10 and LD30) caused failure of ecdysis, reduced body length of larvae, malformation of pupae, and vestigial wing formation in adults. Also, broflanilide at LD30 significantly reduced the amount of molting hormone (MH) . After exposure to LD10 or LD30 broflanilide, expression of five Halloween genes, which participate in MH biosynthesis, were found to be altered. Specifically, the transcript levels of SfrCYP307A1 (Spook), SfrCYP314A1 (Shade) and SfrCYP315A1 (Shadow) in 3rd day larvae were significantly decreased as well as SfrCYP302A1 (Disembodied) and SfrCYP306A1 (Phantom) in 5th day pupae. In contrast, the transcript levels of SfrCYP302A1 in 3rd day larvae, SfrCYP307A1 and SfrCYP314A1 in 5th day pupae, and SfrCYP306A1, SfrCYP307A1 and SfrCYP315A1 in 0.5th day adults were significantly increased. Our results demonstrate that broflanilide caused the failure of ecdysis in FAW possibly by influencing the intake of cholesterol through inhibition of feeding and also via altering expression of genes important for MH biosynthesis.

The inotropic γ-aminobutyric acid (iGABA) receptor is commonly considered as a fast inhibitory channel and is an important insecticide target. Since 1990, RDL, LCCH3, and GRD were successively isolated and found to be potential subunits of the insect iGABA receptor. More recently, one orphan gene named as 8916 was found and considered to be another potential iGABA receptor subunit according to its amino acid sequence. However, little information about 8916 has been reported. Here, the 8916 subunit from Chilo suppressalis was studied to determine whether it can form part of functional iGABA receptors by co-expressing this subunit with CsRDL1 or CsLCCH3 in the Xenopus oocyte system. Cs8916 or CsLCCH3 did not form functional ion channels when expressed alone. However, Cs8916 was able to form heteromeric ion channels when expressed with either CsLCCH3 or CsRDL1. The recombinant heteromeric Cs8916/LCCH3 channel was a cation-selective channel, which was sensitive to GABA or β-alanine. The current of Cs8916/LCCH3 channel was inhibited by dieldrin, endosulfan, fipronil or ethiprole. In contrast, fluralaner, broflanilide and avermectin showed little effect on the Cs8916/LCCH3 channel (IC50s > 10,000 nM). The Cs8916/RDL1 channel was sensitive to GABA, which were significantly different in EC50 and Imax for GABA to homomeric CsRDL1. Fluralaner, fipronil or dieldrin showed antagonistic actions on Cs8916/RDL1. In conclusion, Cs8916 is a potential iGABA receptor subunit, which can interact with CsLCCH3 to generate a cation-selective channel that is sensitive to several insecticides. Also, as Cs8916/RDL1 has a higher EC50 than homomeric CsRDL1, Cs8916 may serve to affect the physiological function of CsRDL1 and therefore play a role in fine-tuning GABAergic signaling.

Background. Cockroaches are serious urban pests that can transfer disease-causing microorganisms as well as trigger allergic reactions and asthma. They are commonly managed by pesticides that act on cys-loop ligand-gated ion channels (cysLGIC). To provide further information that will enhance our understanding of how insecticides act on their molecular targets in cockroaches, we used genome and reverse transcriptase PCR data to characterise the cysLGIC gene superfamilies from Blattella germanica and Periplaneta americana.

Results. The B. germanica and P. americana cysLGIC superfamilies consist of 30 and 32 subunit-encoding genes, respectively, which are the largest insect cysLGIC superfamilies characterized to date. As with other insects, the cockroaches possess ion channels predicted to be gated by acetylcholine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate and histamine, as well as orthologues of the Drosophila pH-sensitive chloride channel (pHCl), CG8916 and CG12344. The large cysLGIC superfamilies of cockroaches are a result of an expanded number of divergent nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits, with B. germanica and P. americana respectively possessing eight and ten subunit genes. Diversity of the cockroach cysLGICs is also broadened by alternative splicing and RNA A-to-I editing. Unusually, both cockroach species possess a second glutamate-gated chloride channel as well as another CG8916 subunit.

Conclusion. These findings on B. germanica and P. americana enhance our understanding of the evolution of the insect cysLGIC superfamily and provide a useful basis for the study of their function, the detection and management of insecticide resistance, and for the development of improved pesticides with greater specificity towards these major pests.

Broflanilide, a novel meta-diamide insecticide, shows high insecticidal activity against agricultural pests and is scheduled to be launched onto the market in 2020. However, little information about its potential toxicological effects on fish has been reported. In this study, broflanilide showed low toxicity to the zebrafish, Danio rerio, with LC50 > 10 mg L-1 at 96 h and also did not inhibit GABA-induced currents of the heteromeric Drα1β2Sγ2 GABA receptor. Broflanilide showed medium bioconcentration level with a bioconcentration factor at steady state (BCFss) of 10.02 and 69.40 in D. rerio at 2.00 mg L-1 and 0.20 mg L-1, respectively. In the elimination process, the concentration of broflanilide rapidly decreased within two days and slowly dropped below the limit of quantification after ten days. In the 2.00 mg L-1 broflanilide treatment, CYP450 activity was significantly increased up to 3.11-fold during eight days. Glutathione-S- transferase (GST) activity significantly increased by 91.44% within four days. In conclusion, the acute toxicity of broflanilide was low, but it might induce chronic toxicity, affecting metabolism. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the toxicological effects of broflanilide on an aquatic organism, which has the potential to guide the use of broflanilide in the field.

The gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor, RDL, plays important roles in neuronal signalling and is the target of highly effective insecticides. A mutation in RDL, commonly A296S, underlies resistance to several insecticides such as cyclodienes. Even though the use of cyclodienes has been banned, the occurrence of mutations substituting A296 is notably high in mosquitoes from several countries. Here we report a survey investigating the prevalence of the Rdl mutant allele in mosquitoes from Laos, a country where mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever are health concerns. Anopheles and Aedes mosquitoes were collected from twelve provinces in Laos. Adult bioassays on Ae. aegypti (Linnaeus) (Diptera: Culicidae) and Ae. albopictus (Skuse) showed that all the populations tested were susceptible to dieldrin (4%) following WHO protocols. Exon 7 from a total of 791 mosquitoes was sequenced to identify the amino acid encoded for at 296 of RDL. Only one of these mosquitoes, Anopheles maculatus rampae (Diptera: Culicidae) from Attapeu, carried the mutant allele being heterozygous for A296S. We therefore found a general lack of the Rdl mutant allele indicating that mosquitoes from Laos are not exposed to insecticides that act on the GABA receptor compared to mosquitoes in several other countries. Identifying the prevalence of the Rdl mutation may help inform the potential use of alternative insecticides that act on the GABA receptor should there be a need to replace pyrethroids in order to prevent/manage resistance.

Recently, Taylor-Wells et al. published evidence that the GABA receptor, RDL, from mosquitoes undergo RNA A-to-I editing to generate an extraordinarily large range of isoforms. This editing was found to impact on GABA receptor pharmacology as it influenced the potency of GABA and ivermectin. This highlights RNA editing as a species-specific mechanism to fine tune receptor function as well as possibly increase tolerance of mosquitoes to certain insecticides. This commentary also considers novel findings from analysis of Rdl transcripts from individual mosquitoes taken from different geographical areas.

Female Aedes aegypti mosquitoes infect more than 400 million people each year with dangerous viral pathogens including dengue, yellow fever, Zika and chikungunya. Progress in understanding the biology of mosquitoes and developing the tools to fight them has been slowed by the lack of a high-quality genome assembly. Here we combine diverse technologies to produce the markedly improved, fully re-annotated AaegL5 genome assembly, and demonstrate how it accelerates mosquito science. We anchored physical and cytogenetic maps, doubled the number of known chemosensory ionotropic receptors that guide mosquitoes to human hosts and egg-laying sites, provided further insight into the size and composition of the sex-determining M locus, and revealed copy-number variation among glutathione S-transferase genes that are important for insecticide resistance. Using high-resolution quantitative trait locus and population genomic analyses, we mapped new candidates for dengue vector competence and insecticide resistance. AaegL5 will catalyse new biological insights and intervention strategies to fight this deadly disease vector.

Background

The shift from solitary to social behavior is one of the major evolutionary transitions. Primitively eusocial bumblebees are uniquely placed to illuminate the evolution of highly eusocial insect societies. Bumblebees are also invaluable natural and agricultural pollinators, and there is widespread concern over recent population declines in some species. High-quality genomic data will inform key aspects of bumblebee biology, including susceptibility to implicated population viability threats.

Results

We report the high quality draft genome sequences of Bombus terrestris and Bombus impatiens, two ecologically dominant bumblebees and widely utilized study species. Comparing these new genomes to those of the highly eusocial honeybee Apis mellifera and other Hymenoptera, we identify deeply conserved similarities, as well as novelties key to the biology of these organisms. Some honeybee genome features thought to underpin advanced eusociality are also present in bumblebees, indicating an earlier evolution in the bee lineage. Xenobiotic detoxification and immune genes are similarly depauperate in bumblebees and honeybees, and multiple categories of genes linked to social organization, including development and behavior, show high conservation. Key differences identified include a bias in bumblebee chemoreception towards gustation from olfaction, and striking differences in microRNAs, potentially responsible for gene regulation underlying social and other traits.

Conclusions

These two bumblebee genomes provide a foundation for post-genomic research on these key pollinators and insect societies. Overall, gene repertoires suggest that the route to advanced eusociality in bees was mediated by many small changes in many genes and processes, and not by notable expansion or depauperation

A mutation in the second transmembrane domain of the GABA receptor subunit, Rdl, is associated with resistance to insecticides such as dieldrin and fipronil. Molecular cloning of Rdl cDNA from a strain of the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, which is highly resistant to dieldrin revealed this mutation (A296G) as well as another mutation in the third transmembrane domain (T345M). Wild-type, A296G, T345M and A296G + T345M homomultimeric Rdl were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and their sensitivities to fipronil, deltamethrin, 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT), imidacloprid and spinosad were measured using two-electrode voltage-clamp electrophysiology. Spinosad and DDT had no agonist or antagonist actions on Rdl. However, fipronil, deltamethrin and imidacloprid decreased GABA-evoked currents. These antagonistic actions were either reduced or abolished with the A296G and the A296G + T345M mutations while T345M alone appeared to have no significant effect. In conclusion, this study identifies another mutation in the mosquito Rdl that is associated with insecticide resistance. While T345M itself does not affect insecticide sensitivity, it may serve to offset the structural impact of A296G. The present study also highlights Rdl as a potential secondary target for neonicotinoids and pyrethroids.

Glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluCls) mediate fast inhibitory neurotransmission in 

invertebrate nervous systems. I Insect GluCls show alternative splicing and to determine its 

impact on channel function and pharmacology we isolated GluCl cDNAs from larvae of the 

silkworm (Bombyx mori). We show that 6 BmGluCl variants are generated by splicing in exons 

3 and 9 and that exons 3b and 3c are common in the brain and third thoracic ganglion. When 

expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, the three functional exon 3 variants (3a, b, c) all had 

similar EC50 values for L-glutamate and ivermectin (IVM); however, Imax (the maximum 

L-glutamate- and IVM-induced response of the channels at saturating concentrations) differed 

strikingly between variants, with the 3c variant showing the largest L-glutamate- and 

IVM-induced response. By contrast, a partial deletion detected in exon 9 had a much smaller 

impact on L-glutamate and IVM actions. Binding assays using [3

H]IVM indicate that diversity 

in IVM responses among the GluCl variants are mainly due to the impact on channel assembly, 

altering receptor cell surface numbers. GluCl variants expressed in HEK293 cells show that 

structural differences influenced Bmax but not Kd values of [3

H]IVM. Domain swapping and 

site-directed mutagenesis identified 4 amino acids in exon 3c as hot spots determining the 

highest amplitude of the L-glutamate and IVM responses. Modeling the GluCl 3a and 3c 

variants suggested that 3 of the 4 amino acids contribute to inter-subunit contacts, while the 

other interacts with the TM2-TM3 linker, influencing the receptor response. 

Glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluCls) mediate fast inhibitory neurotransmission in invertebrate nervous systems. I Insect GluCls show alternative splicing and to determine its impact on channel function and pharmacology we isolated GluCl cDNAs from larvae of the silkworm (Bombyx mori). We show that 6 BmGluCl variants are generated by splicing in exons 3 and 9 and that exons 3b and 3c are common in the brain and third thoracic ganglion. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, the three functional exon 3 variants (3a, b, c) all had similar EC50 values for L-glutamate and ivermectin (IVM); however, Imax (the maximum L-glutamate- and IVM-induced response of the channels at saturating concentrations) differed strikingly between variants, with the 3c variant showing the largest L-glutamate- and IVM-induced response. By contrast, a partial deletion detected in exon 9 had a much smaller 

impact on L-glutamate and IVM actions. Binding assays using [3H]IVM indicate that diversity in IVM responses among the GluCl variants are mainly due to the impact on channel assembly, altering receptor cell surface numbers. GluCl variants expressed in HEK293 cells show that structural differences influenced Bmax but not Kd values of [3H]IVM. Domain swapping and site-directed mutagenesis identified 4 amino acids in exon 3c as hot spots determining the highest amplitude of the L-glutamate and IVM responses. Modeling the GluCl 3a and 3c variants suggested that 3 of the 4 amino acids contribute to inter-subunit contacts, while the other interacts with the TM2-TM3 linker, influencing the receptor response. 

Gap junction-mediated intercellular communication influences a variety of cellular activities. In tendons, gap junctions modulate collagen production, are involved in strain-induced cell death, and are involved in the response to mechanical stimulation. The aim of the present study was to investigate gap junction-mediated intercellular communication in healthy human tendon-derived cells using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). The FRAP is a noninvasive technique that allows quantitative measurement of gap junction function in living cells. It is based on diffusion-dependent redistribution of a gap junction-permeable fluorescent dye. Using FRAP, we showed that human tenocytes form functional gap junctions in monolayer and three-dimensional (3-D) collagen I culture. Fluorescently labeled tenocytes following photobleaching rapidly reacquired the fluorescent dye from neighboring cells, while HeLa cells, which do not communicate by gap junctions, remained bleached. Furthermore, both 18 β-glycyrrhetinic acid and carbenoxolone, standard inhibitors of gap junction activity, impaired fluorescence recovery in tendon cells. In both monolayer and 3-D cultures, intercellular communication in isolated cells was significantly decreased when compared with cells forming many cell-to-cell contacts. In this study, we used FRAP as a tool to quantify and experimentally manipulate the function of gap junctions in human tenocytes in both two-dimensional (2-D) and 3-D cultures.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases have a major impact on human and animal health worldwide. Current control strategies rely heavily on the use of chemical acaricides, most of which target the CNS and with increasing resistance, new drugs are urgently needed. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are targets of highly successful insecticides. We isolated a full-length nAChR α subunit from a normalised cDNA library from the synganglion (brain) of the brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Phylogenetic analysis has shown this R. sanguineus nAChR to be most similar to the insect α1 nAChR group and has been named Rsanα1. Rsanα1 is distributed in multiple tick tissues and is present across all life-stages. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes Rsanα1 failed to function as a homomer, with and without the addition of either Caenorhabditis elegans resistance-to-cholinesterase (RIC)-3 or X. laevis RIC-3. When co-expressed with chicken β2 nAChR, Rsanα1 evoked concentration-dependent, inward currents in response to acetylcholine (ACh) and showed sensitivity to nicotine (100 μM) and choline (100 μM). Rsanα1/β2 was insensitive to both imidacloprid (100 μM) and spinosad (100 μM). The unreliable expression of Rsanα1 in vitro suggests that additional subunits or chaperone proteins may be required for more robust expression. This study enhances our understanding of nAChRs in arachnids and may provide a basis for further studies on the interaction of compounds with the tick nAChR as part of a discovery process for novel acaricides.

BACKGROUND:

Adult house flies, Musca domestica L., are mechanical vectors of more than 100 devastating diseases that have severe consequences for human and animal health. House fly larvae play a vital role as decomposers of animal wastes, and thus live in intimate association with many animal pathogens.

RESULTS:

We have sequenced and analyzed the genome of the house fly using DNA from female flies. The sequenced genome is 691 Mb. Compared with Drosophila melanogaster, the genome contains a rich resource of shared and novel protein coding genes, a significantly higher amount of repetitive elements, and substantial increases in copy number and diversity of both the recognition and effector components of the immune system, consistent with life in a pathogen-rich environment. There are 146 P450 genes, plus 11 pseudogenes, in M. domestica, representing a significant increase relative to D. melanogaster and suggesting the presence of enhanced detoxification in house flies. Relative to D. melanogaster, M. domestica has also evolved an expanded repertoire of chemoreceptors and odorant binding proteins, many associated with gustation.

CONCLUSIONS:

This represents the first genome sequence of an insect that lives in intimate association with abundant animal pathogens. The house fly genome provides a rich resource for enabling work on innovative methods of insect control, for understanding the mechanisms of insecticide resistance, genetic adaptation to high pathogen loads, and for exploring the basic biology of this important pest. The genome of this species will also serve as a close out-group to Drosophila in comparative genomic studies.

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is an established model organism for studying neurobiology. UNC-63 is a C. elegans nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) α-subunit. It is an essential component of the levamisole-sensitive muscle nAChR (L-nAChR) and therefore plays an important role in cholinergic transmission at the nematode neuromuscular junction. Here, we show that worms with the unc-63(x26) allele, with its αC151Y mutation disrupting the Cys-loop, have deficient muscle function reflected by impaired swimming (thrashing). Single-channel recordings from cultured muscle cells from the mutant strain showed a 100-fold reduced frequency of opening events and shorter channel openings of L-nAChRs compared with those of wild-type worms. Anti-UNC-63 antibody staining in both cultured adult muscle and embryonic cells showed that L-nAChRs were expressed at similar levels in the mutant and wild-type cells, suggesting that the functional changes in the receptor, rather than changes in expression, are the predominant effect of the mutation. The kinetic changes mimic those reported in patients with fast-channel congenital myasthenic syndromes. We show that pyridostigmine bromide and 3,4-diaminopyridine, which are drugs used to treat fast-channel congenital myasthenic syndromes, partially rescued the motility defect seen in unc-63(x26). The C. elegans unc-63(x26) mutant may therefore offer a useful model to assist in the development of therapies for syndromes produced by altered function of human nAChRs.

Members of the cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel (cysLGIC) superfamily mediate chemical neurotransmission and are studied extensively as potential targets of drugs used to treat neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease. Insect cys-loop LGICs also have central roles in the nervous system and are targets of highly successful insecticides. Here, we describe the cysLGIC superfamily of the parasitoid wasp, Nasonia vitripennis, which is emerging as a highly useful model organism and is deployed as a biological control of insect pests. The wasp superfamily consists of 26 genes, which is the largest insect cysLGIC superfamily characterized, whereas Drosophila melanogaster, Apis mellifera and Tribolium castaneum have 23, 21 and 24, respectively. As with Apis, Drosophila and Tribolium, Nasonia possesses ion channels predicted to be gated by acetylcholine, γ-amino butyric acid, glutamate and histamine, as well as orthologues of the Drosophila pH-sensitive chloride channel (pHCl), CG8916 and CG12344. Similar to other insects, wasp cysLGIC diversity is broadened by alternative splicing and RNA A-to-I editing, which may also serve to generate species-specific receptor isoforms. These findings on N. vitripennis enhance our understanding of cysLGIC functional genomics and provide a useful basis for the study of their function in the wasp model, as well as for the development of improved insecticides that spare a major beneficial insect species.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are the members of the cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel superfamily and are formed by five subunits arranged around a central ion channel. Each subunit is encoded by a separate gene and is classified as either α or non-α depending on the presence or absence, respectively, of two adjacent cysteine residues which are important for acetylcholine binding. Here, we report for the first time a single nAChR gene encoding both α and non-α subunits. Specifically, alternative splicing of the Anopheles gambiae nAChR subunit, previously called Agamα9 and renamed here Agamαβ9, generates two variants, one possessing the two cysteines (denoted Agamαβ9α) and the other lacking the cysteine doublet (Agamαβ9β). Attempts to heterologously express functional nAChRs consisting of the Agamαβ9 splice variants in Xenopus laevis oocytes were unsuccessful. Our findings further characterise a potential target to control the malaria mosquito as well as provide insights into the diversification of nAChRs.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are pentameric proteins that are important drug targets for a variety of diseases including Alzheimer's, schizophrenia and various forms of epilepsy. One of the most intensively studied nAChR subunits in recent years has been α7. This subunit can form functional homomeric pentamers (α7)5, which can make interpretation of physiological and structural data much simpler. The growing amount of structural, pharmacological and physiological data for these receptors indicates the need for a dedicated and accurate database to provide a means to access this information in a coherent manner.

Description

A7DB https://www.lgics.org/a7db/ is a new relational database of manually curated experimental physiological data associated with the α7 nAChR. It aims to store as much of the pharmacology, physiology and structural data pertaining to the α7 nAChR. The data is accessed via web interface that allows a user to search the data in multiple ways: 1) a simple text query 2) an incremental query builder 3) an interactive query builder and 4) a file-based uploadable query. It currently holds more than 460 separately reported experiments on over 85 mutations.

Conclusions

A7DB will be a useful tool to molecular biologists and bioinformaticians not only working on the α7 receptor family of proteins but also in the more general context of nicotinic receptor modelling. Furthermore it sets a precedent for expansion with the inclusion of all nicotinic receptor families and eventually all cys-loop receptor families.