Dr Richmond Ehwi

Planning systems are instrumental in the emergence and proliferation of gated communities globally. This chapter presents evidence of how Ghana’s planning system has contributed towards the emergence and proliferation of gated communities as a basis for reimagining urban planning. The study employs institutional analysis and uses data from interviews with planning officials in 7 district assemblies and 11 gated community developers in the Accra City Region. Unlike the colonial planning law which had little regard for local exigencies, Ghana’s current planning system now recognises gated communities and the emerging indigenous typologies. It also allows gated community developers to prepare local plans for areas lacking one. By recognising gated communities and allowing them planning functions, district assemblies save on the cost of preparing planning schemes, while also benefiting from significant increases in property rates, and easing the mobilisation of those rates. While applying formal rules to deliver their mandate, officials also draw on informal rules that appear to privilege developers of gated communities, creating avenues for dubious practices to thrive. The study concludes by positing that urban planning in Ghana, and indeed across Africa, can be reimagined by focusing on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of planning systems.

Short summary

Access to decent housing, a fundamental human right, remains an elusive dream for many households in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in Ghana, where the government estimates a deficit of 1.8 million homes. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, a study was conducted in Greater Kumasi to explore how housing characteristics impacted adherence to health and safety protocols. Findings revealed challenges such as lack of water, inadequate sanitation, poor ventilation, limited isolation space, and distracting work environments. Urgent policy changes and regulations are recommended to address Ghana's housing crisis, emphasizing a pro-poor housing policy, improved regulation, and consideration of basic facilities in rental properties. The study emphasizes the need for immediate action to transform Ghana's housing landscape and ensure equitable access to safe and affordable housing for all.

Summary

The declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic in March 2020 compelled national and city governments worldwide to implement a raft of health and safety protocols. This included directives such as working from home, practising regular handwashing, and avoiding poorly ventilated spaces. Adherence to these depended heavily on having access to decent housing that provides basic services. Thus, in this policy brief, we present the findings from collaborative research, which explored how household composition and housing characteristics impacted households’ adherence or otherwise to COVID-19 health and safety protocols. Primary data were gathered using face-to-face interviews with 27 household heads selected across six suburbs in Kumasi and housing professionals. The findings revealed that regular handwashing was the protocol most households predominantly adhered to, mainly because it is a well-known public health practice. The government’s suspension of the payment of water tariffs by households further encouraged more regular handwashing by households, although households whose water supply came from commercial water vendors were more likely to prioritize water for domestic uses such as cooking and bathing over practising regular handwashing. Housing deficiencies such as poor ventilation, sharing of toilet and bathroom facilities in some dwellings and the complete absence of toilets and bathroom facilities in other dwellings compelled some households to resort to public sanitary facilities, which increased their risk of contracting the virus. To improve housing conditions and promote greater adherence to health and safety protocols in future pandemics, we offer the following five recommendations: 1) the extension of an electricity tariff payment freeze to water vendors who supply water to areas lacking water from the public mains, 2) a review of some provisions in Ghana’s building regulations to ensure good housing design, 3) supporting the provision of housing with basic facilities, 4) promoting holistic urban planning and housebuilding and 5) promoting adaptive design of buildings in a post-pandemic world.

The United Kingdom is grappling with a persistent housing crisis, marked by a failure to meet government-set housing supply targets for over a decade. Large-scale speculative housebuilders, a discretionary planning system, and a lack of differentiation in housing contribute to the shortfall. Acknowledging the need for diverse housing solutions, the UK government promotes self-build and custom housebuilding as a means to increase housing supply diversity. Despite potential benefits, such as individual agency, community development, and economic resilience, the self-build market in the UK remains disproportionately low compared to European counterparts.

This report aims to address this gap by examining the self-build and custom housebuilding market in the UK and selected European countries. It explores the approaches used to estimate market share, the types and tenure of self-built housing, demographic characteristics of self-builders, government policies, and associated opportunities and constraints. Additionally, the report investigates higher market shares in certain European countries through case studies and evidence synthesis.

The findings reveal multiple estimation approaches for the UK market share, each with limitations. Self-build projects in the UK predominantly involve collaboration with builders, subcontractors, and project managers, with limited DIY involvement. Detached houses in conventional styles are common, and homeownership is prevalent, though some group self-builds embrace various tenures. The demographic profile of self-builders skews towards older individuals with existing assets, differing from the younger demographic expressing interest. Government support is growing, with specific legislation, funding schemes, and partnerships with industry associations.

Barriers to self-building in the UK include challenges in accessing serviced plots, securing development finance and mortgages, planning uncertainties, and a nascent self-building culture. The report concludes by emphasizing the need for a nuanced understanding of the self-build market and provides insights for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers to foster a more diverse and resilient housing supply in the UK.

Executive Summary

Across the UK, the number of people experiencing homelessness has been rising since 2011 and both the national government and local authorities have recognised the individual and economic costs associated with homelessness (MHCLG 2018).

The government has implemented initiatives aimed at preventing homelessness, including new legislation (see the Homelessness Reduction Act (HRA) 2017), reform of the welfare benefits system (e.g., changes to Universal Credit), and providing funding to local authorities to expand efforts for preventing homelessness or providing different forms of temporary accommodation to people who are already homeless and are owed a statutory duty of care.

Like most economically prosperous cities in the UK, Cambridge faces the problem of homelessness. The City Council has recognised this problem in its housing strategy, and has outlined a programme of actions designed to tackle it (Cambridge City Council 2019). Collaborating with local homelessness charities to explore innovative solutions and approaches is one such action.

Six self-contained modular homes were provided through collaborative efforts involving Jimmy’s Cambridge (Jimmy’s), a homelessness charity in Cambridge, Allia, a not-for-profit organisation that supports small businesses and charities to develop their ideas, and New Meaning Foundation, a social enterprise (Burgess et al. 2020). These modular homes were not only one of the first such pilot projects nationally, they also complement the existing accommodation available for people experiencing homelessness in the city.

In addition to the provision of a modular home, residents receive a comprehensive range of support services coordinated by Jimmy’s, including assistance with registering for social housing, returning to employment or education, tackling physical and mental health challenges, accessing specialist support for drug or alcohol dependence, rebuilding broken social relationships, and development of stronger financial management skills (budgeting, prompt payment of bills, debt advice, etc.).

This report reflects on the experiences of the residents of the modular homes during the first 12 months of their residency. It draws on interviews with the residents and Jimmy’s support workers. Overall, the findings show that since moving into the modular homes, the residents have:

1) Gained a greater sense of self, safety and security. The modular homes provide residents with a private, independent home, thereby enhancing their sense of personal safety and autonomy. The modular homes and the overall environment, including the sense of community and security cameras, provided residents with ‘their own front door’, increasing their overall well-being. This is a more positive living environment than hostel accommodation.

2) Stopped or significantly reduced their use of drugs and alcohol. This has also resulted in positive outcomes in terms of better physical and mental health, improved financial management and stronger social relationships.

3) Improved their financial management skills. Most residents are now able to effectively budget for their rent and service charges, save for personal future use and development, buy tools for work, and provide limited financial support to dependents.

4) Become enthusiastic about returning to work, started training to acquire new skills to seek employment, or returned to a previous trade or business. The stability gained from living in the modular housing and receiving the support services have helped residents to aspire to seek employment and boosted their determination to return to work.

5) Restored, or are making efforts to restore, social relationships. Many residents had lost contact with their family whist experiencing homelessness. Having a place to live that residents can be proud of and can call home, along with the support of keyworkers, has improved residents’ social relationships.

6) Developed a good sense of community. Residents described the development of trusting relationships amongst themselves, with family members, and with support workers.

7) Developed a sense of control over their lives. Residents now have their own space to call home. This sense of control over their lives is improved further by reduced drug and alcohol misuse, maintaining a tenancy, managing money and restoring social relationships. They have been able to develop stable daily routines in their homes, managing and making decisions about their own home, including cooking for themselves.

8) Made plans to eventually move to permanent housing. At least one resident was about to move on to social housing. Not all of the residents were either ready to sustain a tenancy in permanent housing or were interested in moving yet. The time and degree of support needed before a resident of the modular homes is ready to move on to permanent accommodation will vary, depending on their individual circumstances and needs. In a context of considerable housing supply pressures, the evidence from interviews with residents suggests that using modular homes is a worthwhile approach to invest in as part of a strategy to address homelessness. The evidence suggests that providing modular homes in tandem with robust support services has the potential to improve outcomes for people experiencing homelessness.

Short Summary

Ghana's government has introduced a loan scheme to assist tenants in paying the substantial advance rent, often covering two years, demanded by private landlords. However, scholars argue that this scheme, the National Rental Assistance Scheme, may inadvertently legitimize an illegal practice and exacerbate the country's housing crisis. The research emphasizes that the issue lies in the period over which tenants are required to pay advance rent rather than the rent amount itself, suggesting a housing supply problem. The study calls for an overhaul of the rental sector, proposing collaboration with local authorities and chiefs to increase affordable housing supply and address inequality in housing access.

Digital transformation is reshaping the planning, construction, maintenance, and utilization of social and economic infrastructure in the UK, leading to numerous Digital Infrastructure Projects. However, concerns about limited stakeholder engagement in these projects persist, stemming from a lack of comprehensive guidance. This national guidance document, prepared by the Cambridge Centre for Housing and Planning Research for the Centre for Digital Built Britain, addresses this gap.

Drawing from primary interviews and secondary sources, the document outlines broad principles for effective stakeholder engagement throughout the lifecycle of Digital Infrastructure Projects. Recommendations cover pre-engagement considerations, the engagement process, and post-engagement activities. Key recommendations include ensuring full stakeholder representation, defining metrics for success, adopting a holistic approach in engagement forms, and maintaining a neutral position. During engagement, it advises avoiding privileging certain stakeholders, demonstrating genuine interest, and ensuring meaningful participation.

After engagement, recommendations focus on evaluating stakeholders' experiences, publishing reports on commitments made, and sharing lessons learned. Prior to project execution, debriefing stakeholders on their feedback's impact is crucial. During and after project execution, stakeholders should be regularly updated on milestones, and project outputs should be archived for future reference. The guidance seeks to enhance stakeholder involvement, ensuring that public funds invested in Digital Infrastructure Projects deliver value while securing local stakeholder buy-in.

Short summary

Housing, a fundamental human need, significantly influences individuals' well-being, lifestyle, and productivity. In many developing nations, delivering adequate housing to urban dwellers poses a significant challenge for governments. In Ghana, compound houses, constituting 57% of the 3.4 million housing stock, are a prevalent housing type. With a housing deficit of 2 million, the government faces challenges in building new houses. The transformation of existing compound houses is viewed as a potential solution, but it may lead to rent increments and reduced options for low-income households. This study examines the ongoing transformation of compound houses in Bantama, Kumasi, focusing on structural changes, social composition shifts, and gentrification implications. The findings highlight both positive and negative consequences and stress the need for strong government intervention to address Ghana's housing deficit and protect vulnerable households.

Short Summary

The UK faces a growing homelessness crisis, with 280,000 people currently without homes and projections indicating a further increase. The scarcity of affordable housing, particularly social rented properties, is a major contributor to this issue. In response, Cambridge has initiated an innovative solution – modular homes. This collaborative project involves three local organizations: Jimmy’s Cambridge, providing emergency support; the New Meaning Foundation, constructing modular housing units; and Allia, facilitating coordination and financing. The initial findings reveal a successful and cost-effective implementation, offering independent living with positive feedback from residents. The modular housing model, already proven successful in various countries, emerges as a promising solution to address homelessness and provide supportive, affordable living.

Addressing homelessness and rough sleeping poses a significant challenge in Cambridge, as in many other cities in the UK. The modular homes project, a collaborative effort between social enterprises Allia and New Meaning Foundation, along with local charity Jimmy's Cambridge, aims to provide emergency help, support, and accommodation for people experiencing homelessness in Cambridge. This innovative project, one of the first of its kind in England, involves the installation of six modular homes on a temporary site in the city.

Marked as the city's initial endeavor to combine modern construction methods with supported living, the project garnered widespread media coverage locally and nationally, generating considerable interest in replicating similar initiatives in Cambridge and beyond. Supported by research from the University of Cambridge, the study explores the role of modular housing in addressing homelessness. Specifically, the research aims to identify the benefits of the project for residents, stakeholders, and society at large. Insights are drawn from interviews with residents of the modular homes and key project stakeholders.

This report provides preliminary insights based on residents' experiences in the modular units:

• Residents express high satisfaction with the design, user spaces, quality, and furnishings of the modular units.
• There is a sense of optimism among residents about the future, and a willingness to actively contribute to building a thriving community.
• The quality of the modular units, the welcoming local community, and the on-site support services from Jimmy's have significantly contributed to a smooth settling-in experience for the residents.

This stakeholder engagement plan was commissioned by the Centre for Digital Built Britain (CDBB) to serve as a guide for its stakeholder engagement activities for the Digital Twin Research Facility (DTRF) to be set up at the West Cambridge site. The objective of the DTRF is 'to explore and demonstrate how a dynamic digital twin of existing buildings and infrastructure can be developed and to identify the opportunities and challenges' associated with it. Among features such as flexibility, dynamism, and security, the DTRF is also expected to be 'civil.' This means that it should be acceptable to both users and the public more generally. The stakeholder engagement plan is intended to fulfill this civic obligation by ensuring that the DTRF secures the buy-in of stakeholders at the West Cambridge site while drawing on their feedback to improve the DTRF.

The stakeholder engagement plan has been designed to broadly align with both the timeline of the DTRF and the different work packages that must be delivered. In line with this, the plan is organized into three parts:

• Forms of engagement that need to be conducted before the data capture phase of the DTRF. Part one is also written with reference to the current COVID-19 restrictions on social distancing.
• Forms of engagement that need to be conducted when data capture has commenced, and alongside associated work, namely data management and the application development phases of the DTRF.
• Forms of engagement that will occur after the DTRF has been set up to give stakeholders the chance to engage with outputs from the DTRF. Attention will be paid to engagement that can be conducted after the current COVID-19 restrictions on social distancing are lifted, and University buildings have been re-opened.
• 
  

The plan draws insights from both primary and secondary data sources. Primary data come from face-to-face interviews with experts who have facilitated or led stakeholder engagement activities in the UK. Secondary data include existing academic, industry, and grey literature, and earlier reports on stakeholder engagement produced by the research team and submitted to the CDBB.

The increasing urbanization trend globally, with over 70% of the world's population expected to live in cities by 2050, poses both opportunities and challenges for city authorities. In the UK, where nearly 80% of the population is projected to be living in cities by 2030, the concentration of people and businesses necessitates innovative and efficient solutions to address urban challenges. Smart Cities, leveraging data and digital technologies, have emerged as a potential solution to enhance urban living.

This report reviews case studies of Smart City initiatives in UK cities, specifically London, Manchester, Milton Keynes, and Glasgow, to assess the extent of stakeholder engagement and the forms of engagement employed. Despite a strong emphasis on the power of data and benefits of data sharing, the findings reveal limited insights into sensitive matters like data ethics, privacy, and governance. While some Smart City initiatives align with specific challenges, there is a disproportionate focus on transportation, congestion, and environmental impacts, with limited attention to structural and complex issues such as inequality and homelessness.

Regarding stakeholder engagement, the report identifies an absence of comprehensive stakeholder engagement plans in the case study cities. It notes growing evidence of citizen-led initiatives, providing examples like the Indie Food Forum and Food Passport in Milton Keynes and community gardening projects in Glasgow. However, challenges persist, including limited evidence supporting the post-implementation success of Smart City initiatives. The report concludes with specific recommendations for improving stakeholder engagement in Smart City projects, emphasizing the need for comprehensive plans, increased citizen participation, and evidence-based assessments of project success. Additional recommendations are anticipated following further empirical research.