Olympics 2024: Corruption and doping - the dark side of sport

With the Paris 2024 Olympic Games getting underway on Friday 26 July, we begin a series of articles featuring insights from our academic experts. 

At the Tokyo 2020 Olympics there were 29 confirmed doping cases. Moreover, corruption continues to cast a shadow over the event, as seen in the bribery and bid-rigging scandals that tainted the Tokyo Games, resulting in high-profile arrests and ongoing investigations.

Dr Rocco Porreca, a Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Oxford Brookes Business School, has extensively researched why sports stars engage in corrupt behaviour in sports. Here he explores the dark side of sports corruption and doping, shedding light on the impacts on competitors’ careers and health.

What is meant by sport corruption and in what forms can it take place?
“Sport corruption encompasses many forms which can include match fixing, doping, salary cap abuses, ‘scalping’ - re-selling tickets at a much higher price -, ‘tanking’, which is when an athlete deliberately puts in less effort while competing, which can be linked to bets placed on results within a sporting contest. Corruption can also come in the form of bribery associated with mega-event hosting bids.

“With regards to doping, specifically in the Olympics, offences reached some of their highest levels at the 2012 Olympic Games with over 130 positive doping test results. The amount of positive doping test results has decreased more recently with only four at the 2018 winter Games and nine at the 2020 summer Olympics.

“Fundamentally, sport at its most basic level can be viewed from a lens of purity. This purity results from the expectation that athletes participating in sport will do so in a certain way, that they will play the game the ‘right way’; with integrity. Sport, however, is not that black and white. There is a larger element of grey in the mix and this has only been enhanced by sport, in many ways, becoming a very large business. A business which focuses on growth, marketability, and revenue generation. Therefore, despite the purist nature of sport, its evolution has led to moments of corruption.”

Why do sports people engage in corruption?
“Simply, athletes engage in corrupt behaviour because there is an opportunity to do so. Despite sport federations, leagues, and governing bodies attempting to mitigate acts of corruption within their respected sports, eradicating it completely seems unlikely. However, in order to best control and limit corruption within sport, it is vital to understand the reasons for why they choose to engage in this type of behaviour in the first place. 

“Our research placed the reasons for engaging in corruption into three distinct categories: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. In terms of attitudinal reasoning, athletes engaged in corrupt behaviour as a means of recovering from injury, improving health or extending their career. We also found that athletes largely participated in corruption due to a desire to improve their financial situation, in particular those that compete in sports with smaller cash prizes. These athletes were more susceptible to partaking in corruption such as match fixing, in order to boost their earnings.

“From a subjective norms perspective, the culture of the sport and pressure from outside influences lead to corrupt decision-making. Finally, in our research, athletes in some sports felt that they had control over the detecting process, for example doping in cycling. Retired cyclist Lance Armstrong, who in 2012 was stripped of seven Tour de France titles and an Olympic medal for using performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), previously mentioned a lack of out-of-competition testing during his time competing, thus aiding in his ability to dope.”

What are the dangers for sports stars who use performance enhancing drugs to compete?
“There are a multitude of dangers and/or consequences for engaging with performance enhancing drugs. On the doping side, many athletes who have admitted to using performance enhancing or banned substances did so as a means of trying to prolong their careers or to come back from an injury quicker. However, this can have the opposite effect, as they can find themselves facing lengthy suspensions from being able to compete, thus ultimately impacting their public image, marketability, and finances as well.

“From a health point of view there are dangers too, both physiological and psychological. As an example, according to the United States Anti-Doping Agency, the use of Human Growth Hormone or HGH can result in severe headaches, loss of vision, and heart failure, among other issues. Blood doping can result in additional stress on the heart, blood clotting, and/or stroke. That being said, it is important to note that the potential negative health issues associated with doping and performance enhancement can certainly depend on the type of substance, the amount taken, and the frequency of use.”

What testing mechanisms are used for detecting performance enhancing drugs and could positive tests be returned in relation to things like prescription medicines that are required e.g. asthma medication? 
“Typically, testing procedures are put into place by specific organisations. For example, with the upcoming Olympic Games in Paris, the International Testing Agency (ITA) will oversee and conduct all testing. The ITA is an independent organisation separate from that of the International Olympic Committee. 

“The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) essentially sets the stage for anti-doping policy and measures. Therefore, athletes who are competing at a higher level, whether that is national or international, would advise the WADA code of conduct in relation to anti-doping. For example, they will be able to identify banned substances. Any athletes who may have a medical condition, such as asthma, and need to use a specific medication to treat that condition, can apply for a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) for the particular medication or substance.”

There is a proposal for an alternative event called the Enhanced Games. How will they be run differently to the Olympic Games if implemented?
“The Enhanced Games are a proposed set of sport competitions in which athletes who participate will not be subjected to doping testing. The event’s founder, Dr Aron Ping D’Souza, says he aims to produce the safest sporting events in the world, while ensuring all participating athletes are paid fairly. Much is still to be announced here in terms of the specific amounts, the type of competitions, the athletes, and when and where the Games will take place - the current website states the second half of 2025. 

“The biggest difference here is the lack of anti-doping control and the encouragement for athletes to try and break world records through the use of performance enhancing measures. However, much is still to be identified in terms of how this will all work.

“One thing the Enhanced Games may have going for it is curiosity. Fans and spectators may simply be quite curious as to the outcomes and level of entertainment provided by the Enhanced Games. Despite the morally questionable intent, the Enhanced Games may attract some viewership initially if the Games actually come into fruition.

“However, I do not envisage sports companies such as Nike seeking to sponsor record breaking athletes who very clearly are enhancing their performance through the use of banned substances.”

The Paris 2024 Olympic Games will be the first time that World Athletics will award prize money to gold medallists in track and field events. Could the opportunity for a cash prize mean that athletes turn to corruption/ doping in order to win? 
“This feels like it will be the next step for future Olympic Games. We already see nations paying their athletes for winning medals, so it seems like a logical next step for the International Sports Federations to begin contributing more as well. I do see this impacting the Olympic Games because of the opportunity for athletes to make more money, especially for those sports which are not generating a significant amount of revenue on a yearly basis, or for those athletes who themselves do not make a lot of money through traditional competition (e.g. Sport Climbing athletes).

“Our research has found that financial incentive is a reason for athletes engaging in corrupt behaviour, so theoretically if there is more money to be won then athletes may consider doping, for example, to try and achieve this. However, winning a gold medal at the Olympic Games already presents athletes with larger pay days through means such as sponsorships, therefore I do not believe that we will necessarily see a large increase in athletes considering doping now that World Athletics will be awarding prize money.”

Dr Rocco Porreca is co-author of a research paper titled ‘Explaining elite athletes’ corruption behaviours: a comparative analysis of doping and match fixing’, published in January 2023, and has recently written a book on working in the sport industry due out in November.